Ship

J. Brown & Co. when the battle of Jutland took place. This great event naturally led to a revision of the design and in view of the damage which was then done to British battle cruisers and also to TABLE IV. - Particulars of British Battle Cruisers. the German ships of similar type, it was deemed advisable to increase the armour protection, if possible. As the result of very extensive investigations, it was found possible, by accepting a deeper draught and a slightly reduced speed, to add very considerably to the protection of the vessel as already designed, without otherwise seriously affecting the design of the ship as a whole. The alterations were of a very radical character, the armour belt being increased from 8 to 12 in. and the barbettes from 9 to 12 in.; and certain increases were also made in the deck protection. At the same time the eight 15-in. gun mountings had their design modified to admit of an elevation of 30 degrees, and certain other modifications were made, both in the torpedo armament and also in the arrangements for preventing the flash penetrating to the magazines - a form of protection which was elaborated for all British ships at this time. All these increases involved an additional weight of nearly 5,000 tons, the legend displacement of the " Hood " becoming finally 41,200 tons when carrying 1,200 tons of fuel; the ship then having a draught of 282 ft., and a draught of 312 ft. with full fuel load, viz. 4,000 tons.

The original length and beam of the ship were maintained as before. Some extra plating had to be provided on the decks for strength purposes, but the under-water protection against torpedoes was retained as in the original design. With the modifications made, the " Hood " when completed was by far the most up-to-date capital ship in existence.

The changes in the design and other circumstances militated against the quick construction of the ship, and it was about four years from the approval of the original design in April 1916 to the time of her completion, this being about double the time taken to build recent British capital ships, and nearly three times that taken to build the " Repulse " and " Renown." The modifications were, however, quite justified by the circumstances, and they made the ship a much more powerfully protected one, whilst increasing her displacement, and consequently the weight of material to be worked, to about 50% more than that of " Repulse " and " Renown." The main machinery of the " Hood," consisting of geared turbines to develop 144,000 H.P., has the largest power which has ever been put through gearing, namely, 36,000 H.P. on each of the four shafts. The machinery is placed in three engine-rooms, of which the forward one contains two independent sets for the outer shafts; the middle and after engine-rooms contain one independent set for each of the inner shafts. This power, which was designed to give 32 knots for the earlier design of 36,300 tons displacement, was expected to give at least 31 knots in deep water with 210 revolutions of the propellers, at a displacement of 41,200 tons for the " Hood " as built. The 24 boilers represented the small-tube type with forced draught, arranged in four boiler-rooms. Such boilers were first adopted for large vessels in the " Courageous " class. Oil is the only fuel used in " Hood." On trials on the measured mile the " Hood" obtained a speed of 32.07 knots with 151,000 S.H.P. at 42,200 tons displacement, and 31.9 knots with 150,000 S.H.P. at 44, 600 tons displacement.

It will be seen from the plan (fig. 9) that the main armament of eight is-in. guns was mounted, as in recent British battleships of the " Queen Elizabeth " and " Royal Sovereign " classes, in four turrets, all on the centre line, with very large arcs of training, the forward ones training to 60° abaft the beam, and the after ones to 60° before the beam. The anti-torpedo-boat destroyer armament consists of twelve 52-in. guns arranged on the forecastle deck and shelter deck. There are also four 4-in. anti-aircraft guns on the shelter deck aft. There are two 21-in. submerged torpedo tubes, each in a separate compartment forward, and four 2 1-in. abovewater torpedo tubes between the upper and forecastle decks; these above-water tubes being a further addition since the original design was made. The distribution of armour is also shown. The 12-in. belt had a length of 562 ft. and a depth of 9 ft. 6 inches. Above the main belt was a strake of 7-in. armour to the height of the upper deck, and above that again there was 5-in. armour between the upper and forecastle decks. The side armour all sloped outward from below, the shell being thus unable to hit the armour normally, so that the virtual thicknesses were somewhat greater. There was thick plating behind all the armour, varying from 2 in. over the greater portion to 12 in. and i in. elsewhere. The torpedo protection consisted of the bulge arrangement, with an outer compartment of air and an inner one specially strengthened with the necessary separating bulkheads, etc. This protection extended throughout the whole length of the machinery spaces and magazines, and it has been proved that it renders the ship as safe against attack from torpedoes under water as she is against gun attack above water. The oil fuel tanks are arranged along the sides, thus giving additional protection. The " Hood " was successfully launched in Aug. 1918 at Clydebank, the ceremony being performed by Lady Hood, widow of Adml. Hood, who lost his life whilst gallantly leading into action the Third Battle-Cruiser Squadron at Jutland. The launching weight was about 22,000 tons. As the other three ships of the class which were commenced had none of them reached the launching stage at the time of the Armistice, it was subsequently decided not to proceed with them, in view of the international conditions, and the " Howe," " Rodney " and " Anson " were accordingly scrapped.

As regards the general design of the ship, the " Hood " may be cited as an example of what can be achieved by 'going to a large size. Her design embodies the armament and armour protection of a first-class battleship, including also good under-water protecttion against torpedoes, and at the same time gives the speed of the fastest battle cruisers. This involved great length and displacement. The under-water bulge protection, which has entirely superseded the provision of torpedo netting, is additional to anything provided in pre-war " Dreadnoughts." In connexion with the size of the " Hood " and general considerations of design, it is interesting to note the chief characteristics of the " Queen Elizabeth " and " Renown." The " Queen Elizabeth " is a well-armoured ship of about 28,000 tons, with eight 15-in. guns and speed of 25 knots, while " Renown," of slightly less displacement, viz. 27,000 tons, though of greater length, is a vessel with 7 knots more speed than " Queen Elizabeth," but with only six is-in. guns against eight, and approximately about half the armour protection provided in the " Queen Elizabeth." The " Hood " has the same armament, viz. eight 15-in. guns, as the " Queen Elizabeth," armour protection fully equal to and, in fact, rather heavier in the aggregate than that of the " Queen Elizabeth," 7 knots more speed than the " Queen Elizabeth," which makes the speed about equal to that of " Renown," and in addition complete protection against torpedo attack.

FIG. I I.

Large Light Cruisers. - Early in 1915, as sanction was not given by the British Government for building more capital ships taking two years or longer to complete, while additional light cruisers had been already approved of, it was decided to build " Courageous " and " Glorious " (figs. i i and 12) on the lines of very large light cruisers mounting a few guns of heaviest calibre, so as to be able to annihilate any enemy light cruisers or raiders. They were to have light protection, similar to British light cruisers, and a speed of not less than 32 knots, the draught being restricted to about 22 ft., or about 5 ft. less than any existing battleships or battle cruiser carrying such heavy guns, the main armament of four 15-in. guns in two turrets, one forward and one aft, making them a match for any raider or light cruiser that might be encountered. At this time it should also be remembered that the armaments of ships, especially as regards heavy guns, had to be regulated by the guns and gun mountings which would be available or could be manufactured in a short time, and this condition applied to the 15-in. mountings which were adopted for these ships. The secondary armament consisted of eighteen 4-in. guns in six triple mountings, similar to the triple mountings of the " Renown " and " Repulse." The side armour consisted of 2-in. protective plating added to the 1-in. shell plating, and a thin protective deck was worked all fore and aft, hut this was considerably thickened over the magazines after Jutland. A modified " bulge " was arranged for, as in " Renown " and " Repulse." The machinery adopted for these ships was of the type fitted in the light cruiser " Champion." It consisted of a 4-shaft arrangement of geared turbines, the power being transmitted to the propeller shafts by double helical gearing. The eighteen boilers of Yarrow small-tube type were also similar to those of the light cruisers, and with all-oil firing a power of 90,000 S.H.P. at about 340 revolutions of propellers was aimed at. Such trials as it was possible to make showed that 32 knots could easily be obtained at the designed displacement, and on service this was actually exceeded.

It was intended that these vessels should be built in a y ear, or as near that as possible, but this was not realized, and the ships were both commissioned in Oct. 1916.

The " Furious " (see fig. 13), was similar to, but a modification of, the " Courageous " and " Glorious," having about the same length and the same machinery, but the form of midship section was somewhat different, having a more pronounced bulge and a simpler form of main framing and structure of the hull. The armament also was different; each turret, instead of having two 15-in. guns, was arranged to carry one big gun of 18-in. bore.

Early in the spring of 1917 the necessity for having fast aeroplanecarriers became very obvious, and it was approved to fit " Furious " for this purpose. This entailed the removal of the fore turret and making other considerable alterations. A large hangar was built on the forecastle deck, and a flying-off platform 160 ft. long was arranged on the roof of the hangar, which was designed to house about To machines. Later it was decided to remove the after-turret as well, and a flying-on deck 300 ft. long, extending from the funnel aft, was constructed. The secondary armament, which had consisted originally of II 52-in. guns, was retained, with the exception of one gun; the remaining io guns being rearranged. Four sets of triple 21 -in. torpedo tubes were fitted on the upper deck aft, and one pair each side on the upper deck forward.

After these alterations were completed, the ship was tried and commissioned in July 1917, a speed of 312 knots being obtained with 94,000 S.H.P. at 330 revolutions. From the speed point of view the great advantage of size and length is clearly shown in these ships compared to T.B.D.s, since with about three times the H.P. of a destroyer it is possible to drive a ship of nearly 20 times the displacement at the same speed. This in smooth water; in anything of a head sea the T.B.D.s are left behind altogether by the great ships (see Table V.).

Light Cruisers. - Following upon the previous light cruisers of the town classes, a very important departure was made in the light cruiser design in the programme 1912-3, when the "Arethusa " class (see fig. 14) was designed by Sir Philip Watts. The importance attached to speed was specially brought out in this design, and it was decided to install very powerful machinery of 40,000 S.H.P. and this could only be achieved by adopting engines and boilers closely approximating to those hitherto used only for destroyers.

In con j unction with high speed a good armament was provided, consisting of two 6-in. and six 4-in. guns, though in the original design the armament consisted entirely of 4-in. guns. The ship's sides up to the level of the upper deck were protected by a high tensile plating varying from 2-in. to 12-in. and I-in. in addition to the I-in. shell platin g. This arrangement of plating also greatly added to the strength and stiffness of the ship. Further particulars of the class are given in Table V.

The " Arethusa " and other light cruisers were in the action off Heligoland on Aug. 28 1914.

In the 1913-4 programme the " Calliope " class, slightly larger vessels than the " Arethusas," but with the same power, were decided upon, the designs being made by Sir E. d'Eyncourt. After considerable discussion regarding the merits of mixed or homogeneous armament, it was decided to give these vessels two 6-in. guns, both on the centre line placed aft, and eight 4-in. guns. The protection consisted, as in the previous design, of a belt with a total thickness of approximately 3 inches. Most of this class had practically the same machinery as the " Arethusa," but Parsons geared turbines were installed in two of them, the " Calliope " having four shafts and the " Champion " two shafts. This was at the time a very important experiment, the putting of 20,000 H.P. through gearing being a very bold departure from anything which had been hitherto contemplated. The final results obtained with " Champion " were, however, excellent, and she obtained a speed of 292 knots with 337 revolutions and about 41,000 S.H.P., this speed being slightly in excess of any of the other vessels of the class at corresponding displacement.

The " C " class are the first ships, other than battleships, to have superposed guns on the middle line, a sort of spoon-shaped bulwark being fitted to protect the crew of the lower - from the blast of the upper gun firing over them.

For the subsequent vessels of the " C " class reference should be made to the tables, which show a gradual growth in size and power of armament; " Ceres " class (fig. 14) finally having a length of 425 ft. and a beam of 43 ft. 6 in., and a normal displacement of about 4,200 tons. These vessels carried five 6-in. guns, all on the centre line.

FIG. 15.

The next class were the " D's " (figs. 15 and 16), the general arrangement and protection of which followed that of the " Ceres," except that six 6-in. guns were carried on the centre line instead of five. The power was only slightly increased in these ships over the previous classes, but the revolutions were reduced to 275, all these later classes having the twin-screw geared arrangement, and although the displacement of the " D's " increased to 4,650 tons, the additional length and the reduction of revolutions enabled the speed of close upon 30 knots of the whole class of light cruisers " C's " and " D's " to be maintained.

In addition to these light cruisers, which were all to Admiralty design, two vessels - the " Birkenhead " and " Chester " - built at Messrs. Cammell, Laird's for the Greek Government, were pur chased in 1915. These vessels were considerably heavier than the " C " class and more closely resembled the British " Chatham " class. They carried an armament of ten 52-in. guns. The boilers were modified to burn only oil in the " Chester," instead of coal and oil as in the " Birkenhead," and the resulting increase in power to 31,000 gave the former a speed of 262 knots.

Designs were prepared in 1915 of the " Raleigh " class (figs. 17 and 18), a considerably heavier type of light cruiser, more especially suited for ocean work in any part of the world. They were to have a speed of 30 knots and a large radius of action. Various armaments were considered, and it was finally decided to adopt an armament of seven 7.5-in. guns with twelve 3-in. (four being on high-angle mountings). Five of the big guns were placed on the centre line, FIG. 17.

and the other two were on the broadsides amidships. The bow. and stern guns were superposed, thus giving a fire of four guns, both ahead and astern, and six guns on either broadside. These ships were originally designed to burn oil and coal, but the coal-burning boilers were subsequently altered in three ships of the class to burn a larger amount of oil, the original power of 60,000 S.H.P. on a fourshaft geared turbine arrangement being thus considerably increased up to about 70,000 shaft horse power.

These vessels also differed from the light cruisers referred to above in having modified bulges as protection against under-water attack. The protective plating was similar to that of the other light cruisers. One of these ships, the " Cavendish," was altered into an aircraftcarrier, and renamed " Vindictive." Monitors (see Table V.). - The first vessels of this type to be added (or reintroduced) to the British navy were the three exBrazilian river monitors built by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., and taken over by the British Government in Aug. 1914, and renan ed " Humber," " Mersey " and " Severn." The particulars. of these vessels are given in the table, from which it will be seen that the armament consisted of medium-calibre guns, viz. 6-in. 'and 4.7-inches. These vessels, though designed for river service, did very good work in the war, both on the E.-African and Belgian coasts.

The need for vessels of the monitor type mounting heavy guns soon became apparent, and in Nov. 1914 it was decided to prepare designs of monitors of more substantial structure for sea-going service, but of light draught, with good protection and carrying some heavy guns, the light draught combining the advantages of being able to go close inshore and greatly reducing the risk of being struck by a torpedo.

The earliest design was that of the 14-in. gun monitors, four in number, which was commenced in 1914. Four twin-mounted 14-in. guns and mountings were available, and with the very simple form of structure adopted, these vessels were designed and built in six months. They were quickly followed by the 12-in. monitors, which were of similar design but carried pairs of 12-in. guns, taken from older battleships. These vessels were also built in about six months. They all had a complete bulge of a form which was of simple construction, with an air space outboard and a water space between that and the ship proper.

Following on the 12-in. monitors, early in Jan. 1915 two more vessels were ordered, mounting a pair of 15-in. guns. For these ships, internal-combustion engines, which were well under way, but designed for another purpose, were installed. These vessels were named the " Marshal Ney " and " Marshal Soult." In Sept. 1915 two improved 15-in. monitors were ordered and named the " Erebus " and " Terror " (figs. 19 and 20). These were of finer form, of more horse power and a speed of 14 knots.

Following the earlier is-in. monitors, some much smaller vessels, each carrying a 9.2-in. gun, were designed, and others again which carried 6-in. guns. A good many of both large and small monitors went out to the Dardanelles in the early part of the war, and did very good work, and for a long time they seemed to bear a charmed life, as they enjoyed complete immunity from torpedo attack. Later, however, the " Erebus " and " Terror " were both torpedoed; the latter received three torpedoes, two hitting forward of the bulge with severe damage resulting; the third, which hit the bulge itself, did very little damage. The former ship was hit full amidships by a distance-controlled boat carrying a very heavy charge, but the bulge gave her complete protection and both ships were quickly repaired. It is interesting to note in this connexion that some of the old _ .. .__...._ ._.,, n:,punnllu?nmGM?ii ??e nm mmiuinnm uimmnunnamm?nm.v ????

or.

Table British Light Cruisers, Destroyers, Submarines, etc. British cruisers of the " Edgar " class, which had had bulges added to them early in the war, were torpedoed in the Mediterranean, but the bulge gave them complete protection. They were taken to port and repaired. In fact, no bulged ship struck by a torpedo was sunk.

On the heavier monitors it may be remarked that of all ships carrying heavy guns these vessels were probably more often in action off the Belgian coast and elsewhere than any of our heavygun ships, and they no doubt gave the enemy in occupation of that coast a very anxious time.

Destroyers and Flotilla Leaders (Table V.).-With regard to the development of British destroyers and flotilla leaders during the war reference may be made to the tables and plans (figs. 21, 22, 23 and 24). These vessels gradually increased in size and power, and war requirements continually added to the weights which they had to carry, including considerably more fuel, heavier armament both of guns and torpedoes, depth charges, larger bridges, and other additions. In fact, some of the ships which before the war were 900-ton vessels, exceeded 1,000 tons towards the end. The introduction, however, of the geared turbine added enormously to the efficiency of the machinery and propellers.

During the war nearly 300 T.B.D.'s and flotilla leaders, which are simply a larger form of T.B.D. with improved accommodation, were added to the British fleet, and the whole class of these vessels was called upon to do continuous work often in heavy weather. They came through the ordeal with very few breakdowns of machinery or other parts of the ship, whilst the duties they were called upon to perform in combating the submarines, convoying, etc. were continuous and varied. Numbers of these vessels were built by firms who had never built a warship before, but the work turned out by them fully met the Admiralty requirements.

The flotilla leaders, with a deep load displacement of about 2,000 tons and an armament of five 4-in. or 4.7-in. guns, and with their very high speed, might well be described as fast scouts or thirdclass cruisers.

Patrol Boats (Table V. and fig. 25). - Patrol boats were specially designed to relieve the T.B.D.'s of some of their duties such as patrolling, submarine-hunting and escort work, for which high speed was not a necessity. They had to be as small as possible, consistent with keeping the sea in all weathers, with sufficient speed to run down submarines, besides having shallow draught and all top hamper kept low to prevent their being seen at a distance. Economy of fuel was also an important feature, and it was desirable to have them built of mild steel rather than high-tensile steel, in order to simplify the construction. Some were provided with a special hard steel ram, with which a considerable number of enemy submarines were sunk. The various features were combined in a vessel of something under 600 tons, with geared turbine engines of 3,800 H.P., giving a speed of over 22 knots, with 330 revolutions of the propellers. The boats had large rudder area and were cut up aft, so that they could turn very quickly upon the enemy - a most important feature for ramming purposes. They proved very valuable boats /AM 3 on service and did a great deal of work against the submarines in all weathers. They were armed with only one 4-in. gun, mounted in a commanding position on the forward superstructure, one 2-pdr. and two 14-in. torpedo tubes, and later it was arranged to carry depth charges. Their cost was, of course, considerably less than that of a modern destroyer.

Some of these boats were afterwards disguised to look like small mercantile craft - a device which also proved quite successful. Sloops and Mine-Sweepers. - On the outbreak of war it became clear that there would be a great demand for mine-sweeping vessels.

A good many coasting and cross-channel steamers were taken up for this purpose, but more were required, and it was decided in Dec. 1914 to build twelve single screw ships (fig. 26) of simple design to this end. With the view of hastening construction, it was decided to adopt mercantile practice as far as possible in both hull and machinery. The vessels, although of very fine form, were built of simple construction and under Lloyd's survey. The boilers were of ordinary Scotch type, and single screw machinery was provided.

FIG. 21.

In the end nearly moo of these vessels were built, and the armament, which at first was two 12-pdrs., was subsequently increased to two 4. in. or two 4.7-in. guns. A great many of these vessels were built in about six months from the order, and the first 36 averaged 25 weeks in building. They proved excellent sea boats, and were used not only for mine-sweeping, but also for submarine work and for convoying. At later stages some of these vessels were disguised as ordinary merchant ships. They were economical steamers, and were able to attain a full speed of 17 knots, with a H.P. of about 1,800 to 2,000 in the earlier, which was increased to 2,500 in the later, vessels.

Several of the vessels were mined, but although the damage they sustained was very severe, they kept afloat and were repaired. The Admiralty was asked to design and provide some vessels of this type for the French Government, and eight of these were designed by Sir E. d'Eyncourt and built for that purpose and armed with somewhat heavier armament than our own ships. The French Government were very satisfied with the vessels.

In addition to this, at a later stage, for sweeping in shallow water, some paddle mine-sweepers were designed at the Admiralty. These were 15-knot boats, with draught just under 6 ft. 9 inches. They did good work, but were of course not such good sea boats as the sloops. As there was some danger of mines getting under the paddles, a further design of twin-screw mine-sweepers was got out. These were vessels of about Boo tons and about 16 knots speed.

Submarines (Table V. and figs. 27, 28 and 29). - During the war the design of submarines was enormously developed. A very large number of these vessels were added to the British Fleet. There were some twelve different types, some embodying very special requirements and all being improvements on their predecessors. The Admiralty produced the fastest internal-combustion engined submarine in " J " class, which attained a speed of over 19 knots. As a still higher speed was wanted for fleet work, the " K " boats were designed with a surface speed of 24 knots. To arrive at this it was necessary to go to steam, and special arrangements had to be made for shutting down watertight the funnels, etc. However, all these difficulties were overcome.

It is an interesting point about these vessels that, besides the steam turbines for full speed on the surface and the electric drive when under water, they were provided with a Diesel engine for use just before diving or immediately after breaking surface, in order to quicken diving or getting away after coming up.

Although the Germans had the advantage of more power per cylinder in their Diesel engines, Great Britain produced submarines, faster and more heavily armed than theirs.

M. m. submarine was a monitor submarine armed with a 12-in. gun; she was an experimental boat, and proved quite successful.

" China Gunboats." - For use in Mesopotamia or for river work two classes of so-called " China gunboats " were designed by Messrs. Yarrow. The smaller of these vessels, 120 ft. long and of about moo tons, were constructed in Great Britain in such a way that the parts could be sent out to Abadan, where they were assembled, and the vessels reerected and completed under the supervision of Admiralty officers. Some of the larger boats 230 ft. long and of 645 tons, were completed in England and went out to Mesopotamia, where all of them were of the greatest service in that campaign. Most useful work was also done by motor launches and many other types.

The Admiralty was called upon to design many other auxiliary craft - notably some fast Fleet oilers which were able to carry 5,000 tons of oil and had a speed of 15 knots. There were also designed a great number of special smaller craft for all purposes, and a number of merchant ships were taken over and modified to meet diverse requirements.

The most important modifications were those made to vessels taken over and converted into aircraft-carriers, including " Cam fl „ " " " " " " „ panic, Ark, Royal, Engadine," Riviera," etc.; the " Furious " was also altered, and the " Cavendish " (now named " Vindictive ") was converted into an aircraft-carrier. The " Argus " (fig. 30) was originally built as a passenger mail ship of 20 knots, and was taken over and converted into an aircraft-carrier with complete flush deck, the funnels being carried aft in long horizontal ducts, discharging the smoke astern. The " Eagle " was taken for conversion into a large aircraft-carrier with a somewhat different arrangement, with the funnels and all deck erections included on an " island " on one side of the deck. Aircraft-carr y ing ships are in fact gradually becoming more important for the Fleet.

Altogether during the four years more than 2,000,000 tons were added to the navy, at a cost between £250,000,000 and £300,000,000 sterling, exclusive of modifications to auxiliaries. Reference to the navy estimates shows that the aggregate sum spent during the four years before the war on new construction amounted to approximately £60,000,000. In fact, during the four years 1915-8, more tonnage was built for the British navy than during the previous 25 years.

II. Navies Of Other Countries During the period 1910-20 foreign naval construction of all types generally followed the line of British designs, with one or two important exceptions which must not be overlooked.

The most important departure from the British practice was in respect of the number of guns mounted in the barbettes. Triplegun mountings for the main armament have been adopted by several nations, viz. France, Italy, Austria, Russia and the United States, while in 1914 the French began the construction of quadruple-gun turrets, but neither these turrets nor the ships for which they were intended have been completed.

The British example in regard to the adoption of turbine machinery for propulsion of the first " Dreadnought " battleship and battle cruisers was not followed by the other nations at once. In some cases, for example, Japan and the United States, sister vessels were built, one having turbine engines and the other reciprocating engines. Finally, however, turbine engines were almost universally adopted, while the United States made a fur e° Fr FIG. 19.

ther advance by the adoption of the electric drive. The first American battleship in which this was installed was the " New Mexico," and it was arranged for all subsequent vessels to be propelled similarly.

In the adoption of oil only as the fuel the British again took the lead, and up to Aug. 1921 this had only been followed by the United States. The German authorities had considered that their sources of supply were not sufficiently reliable to justify their depending on oil alone.

On the whole, therefore, it may be said that the designs, apart from the above features, of foreign warships did not differ essentially from the British types, as can be seen from the notes and tables which follow.

Of the minor navies, many of which depended on British or other foreign builders for the design and construction of their warships, little need be said, as with the war the development of their navies practically ceased, and some of the most important vessels, such as the battleships building for Chile and Turkey, were taken over for the British navy.

At the Armistice both the German and Austrian navies ceased to exist as factors in the general naval situation, all their principal ships being surrendered to the Allies, the great majority of the vessels being finally destroyed, either being broken up or used as targets, with the exception of a few of the less important units, such as light cruisers and destroyers, which were incorporated in the French and Italian navies.

Battleships (I) United States. - The first vessels of the " Dreadnought " type constructed for the U. S. navy were the " Michigan " and " South Carolina," launched in 1908. These vessels, carrying only eight 12-in. guns, were of about 2,000 tons less displacement than the " Dreadnought," and 2 knots slower than this vessel. The main armament of the U. S. vessels was disposed, however, in an original manner, constituting a bold departure in that they were all mounted on the centre line of the vessel in two superposed twingun turrets forward, and two aft, with large arcs of training on each beam. This arrangement of turrets gave an ahead and astern fire of four guns and a broadside fire of all the eight guns. The waterline armour belt was i I in. thick with 8 in. above. Cage masts constructed of a large number of steel tubes were fitted in these vessels and such masts have been fitted in all later U. S. capital ships and also in some of the earlier vessels in substitution of their original masts. The " Michigan " and " South Carolina " were propelled by twin screws driven by reciprocating engines, thus differing from the " Dreadnought." The next battleships built were the " North Dakota " and " Delaware," launched respectively in 1908 and 1909. These vessels were a considerable advance in size over their predecessors, being more than 60 ft. longer, 4,000 tons heavier, and two knots faster, while they carried two additional 12-in. guns. The io guns were mounted all on the centre line, the two turrets forward being superposed as in the previous class, while the three turrets aft were arranged so that one could fire over the other two, which were both on the same deck so that one could only fire on either broadside. The arrangement of guns thus increased the broadside fire but left the ahead and astern fire as before. The armour belt consisted of a tier of II in. at the water-line, with a tier of 8 in. above. The advance in speed involved an increase of 50% in the H.P. of the engines, viz. from 16,500 to 25,000. Turbines of the Curtis type were installed in the " North Dakota " for the first time in a U. S. capital ship, but the " Delaware " was fitted with reciprocating engines. An important departure in these vessels was the fitting of 14 5-in. guns as secondary armament in a battery amidships, protected by 5-in. armour.

The next pair of battleships, named the " Utah," launched in 1909 and the " Florida," launched in 1910, were enlarged " North Dakotas," but both had Parsons turbine engines of 28,000 shaft horse-power. The tonnage was increased to 21,800 tons on the same draught, and the speed remained practically the same. The length was increased slightly to 521 ft. and the beam to 88 ft. The main armament was the same in number of guns and arrangement of turrets as in the " North Dakota," but the secondary armament was increased to 16 5-in. guns, protected by 5-in. armour. The armour was practically the same as in the previous vessels.

The succeeding pair of battleships, " Arkansas " and " Wyoming," launched in 1911, were characterized by another large increase in dimensions, the length being increased to 562 ft. and the beam to 93 ft., while on the same draught as previous vessels the displacement was 26,000 tons. The engines were Parsons turbines of about 28,000 S.H.P., the speed being about 1 knot less than the " Utah," of the same power but 4,000 tons less displacement. The greatly increased displacement enabled 12 12-in. guns to be mounted in six twin-gun turrets arranged all on the centre line in three superposed groups, one group forward, another just abaft of amidships and the remaining group aft. The ahead and astern fire thus remained as in previous vessels at four guns, hut all 12 guns could be fired on either broadside. The secondary armament was 16 5-in. guns in a 6-in. armoured battery. The protection was generally similar to the previous vessels, the water-line belt and barbette armour being II in. thick. The turrets and conning tower were of 12-in. armour.

These vessels were the last U. S. battleships mounting 12-in. guns. The example of the British in fitting 13.5-in. guns in the " Orion " class was followed by the adoption of 14-in. guns in the next vessels laid down by the United States. These were the " Texas " and " New York," launched in 1912, the dimensions of which were slightly greater than those of the " Arkansas " and the displacement I,000 tons greater. Ten 14-in. guns constituted the main armament and was mounted in five twin turrets, arranged generally in a similar manner to the British " Orion," four guns firing ahead and astern and all io on either broadside. The secondary armament remained as before, 16 5-in. guns being mounted in an amidships batter y protected by 6-in. armour. The water-line belt was 12 in. thick with a 9-in. belt above it, and the protection generally was somewhat greater than that of the previous vessels. An important feature in these vessels was the return to reciprocating engines, which on a power of 27,000 gave the vessels a speed of 21 knots. The reintroduction of this type of engine was made chiefly to obtain greater economy at cruising speeds.

The next pair of battleships, " Nevada " and " Oklahoma," launched in 1914, were of slightly increased length and tonnage. The main armament was the same numerically as the " New York's," but was arranged in four turrets, two containing two guns each and the other two three guns each. The twin-gun turrets were superposed above the triple-gun turrets at each end of the vessels. The secondary armament of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma " consisted of 12 5-in. guns arranged in an unprotected battery farther forward than in previous vessels. Turbines were again adopted for the propulsion of the " Nevada," but reciprocating engines were fitted in the " Oklahoma." The reduced power of the machinery, viz. 24,800 H.P. of both vessels, resulted in a reduced speed of 201 knots.

The British example of adoption of oil only as the fuel for the " Queen Elizabeth " class was followed by the United States in the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma," the total quantity of fuel arranged for, however, being 2,000 tons, compared with 3,400 tons in " Queen Elizabeth." The saving in weight resulting from the adoption of triple-gun turrets and oil fuel enabled considerable additions to he made to the armour protection of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma." The belt amidships was 131 in. thick and extended from 82 ft. below to 9 ft. above the water-line. The conning tower was protected by 16-in. armour, this being also the thickness of the front plates of the twin-gun turrets, those of the triple-gun turrets being of 18-in. armour. The vessels are further distinguished from their predecessors in that only one funnel, instead of two, is fitted. The uptakes are protected by 132-in. armour.

The " Nevada " and " Oklahoma " were succeeded by the " Pennsylvania " and " Arizona " (fig. 31), launched in 1915, in which the dimensions were further increased and the displacement became 31,400 tons. The main armament was increased to 12 14-in. guns arranged in four triple turrets in two superposed groups forward and aft. The secondary armament originally consisted of 22 5-in. guns, but has been reduced to fourteen. The protection of the vessels was generally similar to that of the " Nevada " and " Oklahoma," but the side armour was increased to 14 in. maximum. Turbine engines were fitted in both vessels of the class, the " Pennsylvania " having geared cruising turbines in order to secure economy.

The " New Mexico," " Idaho " and " Mississippi," launched in 1917, were similar in general design, protection, and main armament to the " Pennsylvania." The displacement was slightly increased to 32,000 tons. The main armament of 12 14-in. guns was again arranged in four triple turrets, with front plates of 18-in. armour, side plates 9 in. to 10 in. and roof plates 5 inches. The secondary battery of 14 5-in. guns was fitted a deck higher than in " Pennsylvania " and was unprotected.

The " New Mexico " was distinguished from her sister vessels by the adoption of electric motors for her propulsion, the other two vessels having turbines arranged as previously; she had two turboelectric generating sets of 11,400 kw. capacity installed, and this electric power was transmitted electrically to four motors of, nominally, 6,600 H.P., one on each of the four propelling shafts. These motors were reversible, thus avoiding, as in the ordinary turbine method of propulsion, the necessity for astern as well as ahead prime movers. The electric drive appears to have been successful, especially as the " New Mexico " was not originally designed for this method of propulsion; the accommodation for the machinery being obtained by modifications in the arrangement of the spaces provided in the original design for turbines, without affecting the other features of the design. The vessel was put through exhaustive trials with satisfactory results, a maximum speed of just over 21 knots being obtained at 31,200 H.P. on a displacement of 32,800 tons, with economical steam and fuel consumption. An advantage conferred by the electric drive at cruising ship speeds arises from the ability to obtain the necessary power from only one of the electric generating sets, which can thus be worked at nearly full power and therefore give very good efficiency. The " New Mexico " escorted President Wilson across the Atlantic, and on both eastward and westward voyages only one turbine generating set was used. The weight of the machinery was greater per H.P. than that of turbine machinery of about the same power in British warships, but it was considered that this was capable of improvement in the future, especially in the case of vessels intended from the outset to have the electric drive. The electric drive has been adopted for all succeeding U.S. capital ships.

The " Tennessee " and " California," launched in 1919, were practically repeats of the " New Mexico," the displacement being 32,300 tons. These vessels, however, have two funnels. Also a new system of under-water protection (which has since been adopted for all U.S. battleships) was introduced. This consists of five vertical longitudinal bulkheads extending parallel to the ship's side from the forward to the after magazines, thus protecting the whole of the vitals of the ship. The innermost bulkhead is about 17 ft. inboard, the other bulkheads being approximately equidistant from one another; the bulkheads next to the skin bulkhead and innermost bulkhead are all thin plating, the other three being of thicker plating; the middle three of the five spaces formed by this arrangement are utilized as oil-fuel bunkers.

In Aug. 1915 Congress approved the first building programme ever drawn up for the U.S. navy, according to which 10 battleships, 6-battle cruisers, 10 scouts (or light cruisers), 50 destroyers, 9 fleet and 58 coast submarines were to be added in three years to the U.S. navy, in addition to a number of auxiliary vessels.

The first battleships to be built under this programme were the " Colorado " (launched 1921), " Maryland " (launched 1920 and completed 1921), " Washington " and " West Virginia." The dimensions of these vessels are not greatly different from the " Tennessee," except that the displacement is slightly greater, being 32,600 tons, the H.P. of the electric propelling machinery being increased to 28,- 900 to maintain the speed of 21 knots. The chief departure in the new vessels was the adoption of 8 16-in. guns as the primary armament, arranged in four twin-gun turrets superposed in pairs forward and aft. The secondary armament consists of 14 5-in. guns. The armour protection is generally as in the " New Mexico " class.

? ' 'Ls- FIG. 32..

The remaining six battleships of the 1916 programme had not yet been launched in 1921. Their names are " South Dakota," " Indiana," " Montana," " North Carolina," " Iowa," and " Massachusetts " (fig. 32). They are a very great advance on their predecessors, being 684 ft. long, 106 ft. wide and displacing 43,200 tons on a draught of 31 feet. An increased speed, 23 knots, is aimed at, the electric drive being of 60,000 horse-power. The main armament is increased by 50%, consisting of 12 16-in. guns mounted in four triple-gun turrets, and the secondary armament comprises 16 6-in. guns. The torpedo armament was two submerged 21-in. torpedo tubes throughout all the battleships described in the fore going. In 1919 a second three-year programme was considered, to consist of 156 vessels in all, including a further batch of 10 battleships and six battle-cruisers.

The French navy did not immediately adopt the single-calibre main armament, their first vessels, designed after the " Dreadnought " era had begun, being the " Danton " class, which resembled the " Lord Nelson " in armament, 12 9.4-in. guns being carried in addition to the usual 4 12-in. guns. They were about 2,000 tons heavier than the " Lord Nelson " and were fitted with turbines of 22,500 H.P., giving a speed of 20 knots. The first French battleships of the " Dreadnought " type were the " Jean Bart " class, launched in 1911 and 1912. These vessels, " Jean Bart," " Paris," " France " and " Courbet," were a considerable advance on the " Danton " class, being 546 ft. long, as against 481 ft., with increased beam and draught, and displacement of 23,100 tons. Turbine machinery of 28,000 H.P. was fitted, giving a speed of 20 knots. The main armament comprised 12 12-in. guns mounted in six twin-gun turrets arranged in two superposed groups forward and aft, with the remaining two turrets on the broadsides amidships. The ahead and astern fire was thus 6 guns and broadside 10 guns. The secondary armament was very numerous, consisting of 22 5.5-in. guns protected by 7-in. armour. The side armour was 104 in. thick, tapering to 7 in. at the bow and stern, the turret armour being also 104 in. thick.

The " Jean Bart " successfully withstood torpedo attack by an Austrian submarine in 1915, being struck well forward. Compartments were flooded, but the vessel proceeded under her own power to Malta, where she was repaired in H.M. Dockyard.

FIG. 33.

The next battleships built by the French were the " Bretagne " (name ship of the class) (fig. 33), " Lorraine " and " Provence," all launched in 1913, practically repeats of the " Jean Barts," except that the main armament consisted of 10 13.4-in. guns mounted in five twin-gun turrets, all on the centre line of the vessels, the usual superposed groups of two turrets forward and aft, the fifth turret being amidships. The secondary armament again consisted of 22 5.51n. guns, arranged slightly differently from the " Jean Bart," but this number was decreased after the war to 18, during a partial reconstruction when director-firing was installed on a new tripod foremast.

These vessels were the last battleships completed for the French navy, the completion of the five vessels of the "Normandie" class, launched in 1914 and 1915, having been abandoned, with the exception of the " Bearn," which has been converted into an aircraft-carrier. The " Normandie " class were designed to carry 12 13.4-in. in three quadruple-gun turrets, a unique arrangement. The four guns in each turret were arranged on two mountings, so that virtually they comprised two twin guns. The secondary armament was to have consisted of 18 5.5-in. guns. The machinery intended for these vessels was of an interesting type, consisting of a combination of turbine and reciprocating engines, the two inner shafts being driven by turbines and the two outer shafts by reciprocating engines, which alone were powerful enough to have given the vessels a speed of 16 knots, the full power of 35,000 H.P. being designed to give a maximum speed of 21 knots.

It was intended to have laid down in Oct. 1914 four battleships of the " Duquesne " type, but the outbreak of the war caused this intention to be abandoned. The vessels were designed to carry 16 13.4-in. guns in four quadruple-gun turrets, arranged in two superposed groups forward and aft. The displacement was to have been 29,500 tons, and, with combination turbine and reciprocating engine, a speed of 23 knots was anticipated.

It should be noted that during the whole war period the French Government dockyards, and many private yards also, devoted their whole capacity to the production of munitions of all kinds for the army; naval work being almost entirely relegated to the background.

No provision was made in the French naval budget for 1921 for the construction of any capital ships.

The " Satsuma" and " Aki " were the first battleships built in Japan after the " Dreadnought " era had begun. They were a development of the " Kashima " class, and therefore resembled in type the " Lord Nelson." Launched in 1906 and 1907, they mounted 4 12-in. and 12 Io-in. guns on a displacement of about 19,500 tons. Turbine machinery of 24,000 H.P. was fitted in the " Aki,' giving a speed of 202 knots. The " Satsuma," with reciprocating engines of 18,500 H.P., was 2 knots slower.

The first Japanese battleships of the " Dreadnought " type were the " Settsu," launched in 1911, and the " Kawachi," launched in 1912. The latter vessel was blown up in 1918 in a Japanese harbour by the explosion of her magazines. These vessels were of 20,800 tons and mounted 12 12-in. guns, arranged in six twin-gun turrets, one forward and aft on the centre line and the other four on the broadsides. The ahead and astern fire was thus 6 guns and broadside fire 8 guns. The secondary armament was 10 6-in. guns, mounted in an amidship battery protected by 6-in. armour. Eight 4 7-in. guns were also mourited. The armour belt was 12 in. thick amidships at the water-line and 9 in. above, with 5-in. armour forward and aft, the 12-in. guns were protected by I i-in. armour, and the conning tower by 12-in. armour. Turbine machinery of 25,000 H.P. was fitted, giving a speed of 202 knots.

I I i I FIG. 34.

Large increases in dimensions and power characterized the next class (fig. 34) of Japanese battleships, 14-in. guns being adopted. These vessels were the " Fuso " and " Yamashiro," of 30,600 tons and 40,000 H.P., launched in 1914 and 1915 respectively, and the " Ise " and " Hyuga," of 31,260 tons and 45,000 H.P., launched in 1916 and 1917. The main armament consisted of 12 14-in. guns mounted in twin-gun turrets all arranged on the centre line of the vessel. Two turrets are superposed forward, with a similar arrangement aft, the remaining two turrets being abaft the forward and after funnels respectively. The first pair of vessels named mount 16 6-in. guns, and the second pair 20 5 5guns, as the secondary armament in an amidships battery protected by 6-in. armour. The belt and turret armour is 12 in. thick. The speed of the vessels is about 222 knots.

.,.

FIG. 35.

The next class of Japanese battleships are characterized by the fitting of 16-in. guns. These vessels were "Nagato " (launched 1919 and completed 1920) and " Mutsu " (launched 1920), of 33,800 tons displacement, and " Tosa " and "Kaga " (building 1921) of 40,600 tons displacement. The former pair of vessels mount 8 16-in. guns in four twin-gun turrets arranged in the now usual manner, with 20 5 5-in. guns as secondary armament. The latter pair of vessels were probably to mount 10 16-in. guns. The torpedo armament, which in previous vessels consisted of five or six submerged tubes, was increased to eight tubes, four of which are mounted above the water-line. The vessels were slightly faster than previous vessels, a speed of 232 knots being intended, geared turbines providing the requisite power, which was about 46,000 in the " Nagato " and " Mutsu " and 60,000 in the " Tosa " and " Kaga." Under the 1920-8 Navy Law four battleships were projected.

(4) Germany. - The " Dreadnought " type of battleship was adopted at once by Germany, the advance from the " Deutschland " class (of the " Formidable " type) being made without trial as was done in some other navies, of vessels of the " King Edward VII." or " Lord Nelson " types. The first German " Dreadnoughts " were the four vessels of the " Nassau " class, launched in 1908. Shorter but wider and somewhat heavier than the " Dreadnought," the " Nassau," on a displacement of 18,600 tons, carried 12 I I-in. guns in six twin-gun turrets, mounted one at each end on the centre line, and two on each broadside, thus giving an ahead and astern fire of six guns and broadside fire of eight. The secondary armament consisted of 12 5 9-in. guns, mounted in a battery protected by 7-in. armour. A large torpedo armament of six 17 7-in. submerged tubes was fitted. The water-line armour belt was i i 2 in. thick, with an 8-in. belt above, and tapering to 5 in. forward and 4 in. aft. The speed was 19 knots, the requisite H.P. of 20,000 being developed by reciprocating engines.

The " Nassau " class was followed by the four ships of the " Helgoland " class (fig. 35), launched in 1909 and 1910. These vessels marked a considerable increase in dimensions and displacement. The 12-in. gun was adopted for the first time in these vessels, the Germans claiming that this weapon was the equivalent of the 13.5-in. gun then being adopted by the British in the " Orion " class. The " Helgoland " carried 12 12-in. guns arranged similarly to the i i-in. guns in the " Nassau." The secondary armament was increased to 14 5 9-in. guns and the six submerged tubes were of 19 7-in. diam FIG. 36.

eter. The protection was generally the same as that of the " Nassau " class. The speed was increased to 20 5 knots. The various increases involved a displacement of 22,440 tons and engines of 25,000 H.P., but the reciprocating type was still adhered to.

The " Kaiser " class (five vessels), launched in 1911 and 1912, were slightly larger and faster than the " Helgoland " class, being of 24,300 tons and 21 knots, but the main armament was reduced to 10 12-in. guns without loss of broadside fire, as they were arranged similarly to the British " Neptune " (designed two years previously). with one turret forward, two superposed aft and two broadside turrets en echelon, all guns thus being able to fire on either broadside. The secondary armament was unaltered and the bow torpedo tube was omitted. The armour protection was considerably increased, the water-line belt being of 134 in. maximum thickness ?_!

FIG. 37.

tapering to 9 in., with an upper belt of 74 in., the secondary battery above and both ends of the ship being protected by a like thickness. Turbine engines were installed for the first time in German battleships, the power being 28,000 for a speed of 21 knots, which was somewhat exceeded on trials.

The four ships of the " Konig " class (see fig. 36), launched in 1913 and 1914, were, with the exception of slightly greater dimensions and displacement, generally repeats of the " Kaiser " class in respect of number and calibre of guns and torpedo tubes and of protection. The main armament was arranged all on the centre line, as in the British " Orion " class, the amidship turret being, however, between the two funnels. An important advance lay in the increased oilfuel (700 tons) capacity, previous vessels having only Zoo tons.

The last battleships built by the Germans were the " Baden " and " Bayern " (see fig. 37), launched in 1915, two others of the class not being completed at the time of the Armistice. A very complete description of the " Baden " was given in a paper read by Mr. S. V.

Goodall before the Institution of Naval Architects in March 1921. The " Baden " and " Bayern " were about 3,000 tons heavier than the " Konig " class, the dimensions being increased proportionately. The chief difference, however, was in the main armament, 8 15-in. guns being mounted in four turrets on the centre line in two superposed groups forward and aft, as in the British " Queen Elizabeth." The secondary armament was increased to 16 5.9-in. guns, and the torpedo armament consisted originally of 5 23.6-in. submerged tubes, one forward in the stem and the other on the broadside forward and aft. The forward torpedo room was damaged by an under-water explosion and when repairs were made the torpedo tubes were not replaced. Turbine machinery of about 50,000 H.P. total was fitted, driving three propellers, and a speed of about 22 knots was obtained on trials. The main armour belt was 134 in. thick, tapering to 64 in. at the lower edge. Above was a belt of 'to-in. armour extending to the upper deck. The secondary battery was protected by 64-in. armour. Forward the side armour was 6 in. thick and aft 7 inches. The latter and a deck of 44 in. thickness provided protection to the steering gear. The maximum thickness of armour for the barbettes, turrets, and conning tower was 134 inches. Protection against under-water attack was provided by a;longitudinal bulkhead 2 in. thick, set in about 13 ft. from the side.

The first Italian " Dreadnought " was the " Dante Alighieri," of 19,200 tons, launched in 1910. This vessel was then :remarkable for the high designed speed of 23 knots and the adoption of triple-gun mountings for the main armament of 12-in. guns, of which 12 were carried in turrets all fitted on the centre line of the vessel. The turrets, funnels and masts were so disposed that the vessel could practically be described as " double-ended." The vessel was protected by a water-line belt of to-in. (maximum) armour. amidships and 4-in. at the ends, with an upper belt of 6-in., by which 12 of the secondary battery of 20 4.7-guns were protected. ,The remaining 8 4.7-in. guns were mounted in four twin-gun turrets on the upper deck. The 12-in.-gun turrets had a maximum thickness of to-in. armour. Turbine engines of 26,000 H.P. were fitted; these developed 35,000 H.P. on trial, when 24 knots were attained. Three torpedo tubes were fitted.

The " Dante Alighieri " was followed by the " Conte di Cavour," " Leonardo da Vinci " and " Giulio Cesare," launched in 1911. These vessels were 3,000 tons heavier than their predecessor and mounted an extra 12-in, gun, making 13 in all, four of which were in two twin-gun turrets superposed above triple-gun turrets forward and aft, a further triple-gun turret being fitted amidships. This arrangement enabled an increased all-round fire to be obtained over the previous vessel. The secondary armament of 18 4.7-in. guns was carried in an amidships battery protected by 5-in. armour, which was above the upper belt of 9-in. armour, the water-line belt being to-in. amidships and 4-in. at the ends. Turret armour was to-in. and conning tower 12-inches. Turbine engines of 24,000 H.P. were fitted to give a speed of 22 knots.

FIG. 38.

The " Andrea Doria " and " Caio Duilio " (see fig. 38), launched in 1913, were slightly longer and heavier than the " Conte di Cavour," but except for an improved secondary armament of 16 6-in. guns fitted abreast the forward and after turrets, the changes were of a minor nature.

The " Leonardo da Vinci," blown up at Taranto in 1916 by the explosion of her magazine, was refloated and dry-docked upside down in 1919. After repairs she was floated out of dock still upside down and then righted. This operation reflects the greatest credit upon the Royal Italian Corps of Naval Constructors, who conducted the operations throughout. The vessel, will, however, not be restored as a warship, but utilized for a subsidiary service.

The last four battleships laid down in 1914 and 1915 for the Italian Navy, the " Caracciolo " class, have not been completed. They were to have been generally similar in size, armament, speed and protection to the " Queen Elizabeth." (6) Russia. - The Russian navy has ceased to exist as an important factor, but technically the various classes of battleships built are of interest.

Following the construction of two vessels of the intermediate " Lord Nelson " type, four battleships of the " Petropavlovsk " class were launched in 1911 and three of the " Imperator Alexander III." class (for the Black Sea Fleet) in 1914. The first four were slightly heavier, longer and faster than the others, but their general characteristics are similar. They all mount 12 12-in. in four triple-gun turrets on the centre line of the vessel, arranged similarly to the Italian " Dante Alighieri," the speed of which, 23 knots, was the same as that of the " Sevastopol," the Black Sea vessels being 2 knots slower, all the vessels having turbine engines.

The " Imperatritza Marie " was blown up by an internal explosion at Sevastopol in 1916, and refloated and docked upside down in 1919, similarly to the " Leonardo da Vinci." (7) Austria. - Three battleships of intermediate (" Lord Nelson ") type were completed in 1910 and 1911. Following these vessels four " Dreadnoughts " of the "Viribus Unitis " class were completed in 1912-5. On a displacement of 20,000 tons, 12 12-in. guns in four triple-gun turrets (of I I-in. armour maximum) ere carried in two superposed groups forward and aft with 12 5.9-in. guns as secondary armament in an amidships battery protected by 6-in. armour. The water-line belt was II in. amidships and 5 in. at the ends. An upper belt of 8 in. was fitted amidships. Turbine engines of 25,000 H.P. gave a speed of about 20 knots.

Two vessels, the " Szant Istvan " of this class and the old battleship " Wien," were sunk during the war as the result of daring attacks by Italian fast motor-boats. The " Viribus Unitis " sank in 1918, due to the explosion of a mine placed in contact with the vessel by two Italian officers in a small torpedo-like motor-boat.

A contemplated programme of four battleships of 25,000 tons, carrying eight 15-in. guns, did not materialize owing to the war.

The only " Dreadnought " battleships are the " Moreno " and " Rivadavia," launched in the United States in 1911 and completed in 1914; 12 12-in. guns, in six twin-gun turrets, and 12 6-in. guns are carried on a displacement of 27,600 tons, turbine engines of 39,500 H.P. giving a speed of 222 knots.

(9) Brazil. - The " Rio de Janeiro," laid down at Armstrong's, Newcastle, in 1911, was sold later to Turkey, from whom the vessel was requisitioned by the British on the outbreak of the World War, and renamed " Agincourt." The " Minas Geraes " and " Sao Paulo " are thus the only two " Dreadnought " battleships possessed by Brazil.

(to) Chile. - The " Almirante Latorre " and " Almirante Cochrane " were building at Armstrong's in 1914 for the Chilean navy. The former vessel, after service during the war as H.M.S. " Canada," was sold back to Chile, but the latter vessel remains as H.M.S. " Eagle." Chile thus possesses only one " Dreadnought." (II) Greece. - The" Salamis," of 19,500 tons and 23 knots speed, building in Germany at the outbreak of war in 1914, had not been completed. The four twin-gun turrets constructed in the United States for this vessel were purchased by the British and fitted in the first four large monitors.

The " Nidaros " and " Bjorgvin " (coast-defence battleships), launched by Armstrong's in 1914, were taken over by the British during the war and completed, with the addition of bulges, as H.M.S. " Glatton " and " Gorgon." (13) Spain. - The smallest " Dreadnought " battleships ever designed have been completed for the Spanish navy. On a displacement of 15,500 tons, the " Alfonso XIII.," " Espana," and " Jaime I." carry 8 12-in. guns in four turrets (the amidships turrets being en echelon) and 20 4-in. guns. Turbine engines of 15,000 H.P. give a speed of 192 knots. Armour protection consists of a 9-in. water-line belt, with Io-in. armour for the turrets and conning tower. The vessels were built in Spain from designs and under the supervision of British firms.

(14) Sweden. - Three small battleships, the " Sverige " (completed in 1917), and the " Drottning-Victoria " and the " Gustav V." (which in 1921 were nearing completion), are of 7,600 tons displacement. They mount four II-in. and eight 6-in. guns, and with turbine engines of 22,000 H.P. a speed of 22 knots is expected.

Two battleships completing in England for the Turkish navy were taken over by the British Government on the outbreak of war and renamed " Agincourt " and " Erin." Battle Cruisers Up to 1921 battle cruisers had been built only for japan, Germany and Russia, besides Great Britain (see Table VII.). The United States had six vessels building.

The " Lexington" class (fig. J9) were designed in 1916, but no progress was made in their construction during the war. After the Armistice their design was reconsidered. The displacement was increased from 35,300 tons to 43,500 tons, the n ain armament being changed from to 14-in. guns to 8 16-in. guns. The S.H.P. was 180,000 total, driving four propellers, and this was estimated to give 35 knots as the original design displacement and 33 knots for the final design. This enormous H.P. (the maximum so far contemplated for any ship) is developed by the electric drive, on generally similar but improved lines to that of the " New Mexico." Oil fuel only is burnt in the boilers. The changes made included considerably increased protection against gunfire and under-water attack. The result of all the changes made is that the vessels will be powerful battle cruisers, with good offensive and defensive qualities as compared with the initial design. The torpedo [[Table Vi]].-Non-British Battleships, FIG. 45. - White Star (ex-German) Liner Majestic. FIG. 51. - Richburough 1r tin Ferr). Kent, Englau«).

FIG. 48. - U.

ex -Germa..

. t'aslaington.

FIG. 52. - Cunard Liner A quitania as Hospital Ship).

FIG. 46. - White Star Liner Britannic. FIG. 53. - White Star Liner Olympic (as Troopship).

FIG. 49. - American Liner Centennial State. FIG. 32a. - U.S. Battleship North Carolina Class.

FIG. 39a. - U.S. Battle-Cruiser Lexington and Class.

FIG. 31a. - U.S. Battleship Pennsylvania. FIG. 42a. - U.S. Scout Cruisers Nos. 4 -13. armament is very large for a U.S. vessel, consisting as it does of four submerged and four above-water 21-in. torpedo tubes. None of the vessels had yet been launched in 1921.

Four battle cruisers were launched in 1915, but they had not been completed up to 1921. On a displacement of 32,200 tons, with a length of 750 ft., 12 14-in. and 24 5-in. guns and 6 tor FIG.

39.

pedo tubes were to have been carried, turbine engines of 66,000 H.P. being estimated to give a speed of 27 knots. The side armour had a maximum thickness of 12 inches.

The " Tsukuba " and " Ikoma " were laid down in 1905 and the " Kurama " and " Ibuki " in 1907. These vessels are classed as battle cruisers, but they lacked the high speed considered an essential feature of the battle-cruiser type. The " Tsukuba " was blown up in a Japanese harbour in 1917. The next FIG. 40.

battle cruisers built by Japan were the four vessels of the " Kongo " class, launched in 1912-3, the name ship being constructed by Vickers at Barrow, and her sisters in Japan. These vessels resemble the " Lion " class, having an armament of 8 14-in. and 16 6-in. guns on a displacement of 27,500 tons, a speed of 27 knots being obtained with turbines developing 64,000 horse-power. The vessels are well protected by Io-in. (maximum) armour, and they carry a power ful torpedo armament of 8 submerged 2 I-in. torpedo tubes. Four battle cruisers of the " Amagi " class were in 1921 under construction. They were reported to be vessels of 40,000 tons displacement and 30 knots speed, with a main armament of 8 16-in. guns.

As with the " Dreadnought " type of battleship, the Germans followed the British in their battle cruisers. The first vessel of the type, " Von der Tann," was launched in 1909. On a displacement of 19,100 tons she carried 8 II-in. and 12 5.9-in. guns. The armour belt was of io-in. (maximum) thickness and her designed speed was 24 knots, the turbine engines developing about 45,000 horsep ower. This speed and H.P. were exceeded on trials. The " Moltke " (1910), " Goeben " (1911), of 22,600 tons and 25 knots, and " Seydlitz " (1912), of 24,600 tons and 262 knots (fig. 40) were generally improvements on the " Von der Tann." The main armament consisted of 10 I I-in. guns arranged as in the British " Neptune " (of two years earlier design), as compared with 8 13.5-in. guns in contemporary British battle cruisers. The " Goeben " was transferred to Turkey early in the war, having been in the Mediterranean when the war broke out. Return to Germany being impos s FIG. 41.

sible, she escaped to Constantinople. The " Seydlitz " was badly damaged at the battles of Dogger Bank (1915) and Jutland (1916). Her return to harbour after the latter was only effected with great difficulty, and probably only the close proximity of the German coast enabled her to reach port in time. The " Derfflinger " (1913) and " Lutzow " (1913) were the first German battle cruisers to mount 12-in. guns, of which they carried eight on a displacement of 26,200 tons. The speed was 262 knots and maximum armour 12 in. thick. The " Liitzow " was sunk at the battle of Jutland. The " Hindenburg " (fig. 41), launched in 1915 and completed in 1917, and " Mackensen," launched in 1917 but not completed, were virtually repeats of the " Liitzow," with the same armament, but improved speed of 28 knots. The " Graf von Spee," also launched in 1917 but not completed, was of 27,000 tons, with six 15-in. guns as the main armament. A sister vessel, " Prinz Eitel Friedrich," had not been launched at the Armistice. The last three vessels were dismantled, as well as other battle cruisers whose construction had not been far advanced.

Light Cruisers The light cruiser type of warship has in recent years been constructed by very few nations (see Table VIII.). The United States [[Table Vii]]. - Battle Cruisers of Non-British Navies. [[Table Vii]]I.-Light Cruisers of Non-British Navies. did not construct anv after the completion of the " Salem " class in 1908. until after the World War, when the construction of io light cruisers of the " Omaha " class (fig. 42) was commenced. These vessels were designed in 1916 and their construction authorized by the Act of Congress of 1917. The chief characteristics of these vessels, which are classed as " Scouts " by the U.S. navy, are an over-all length of 5551 ft., a displacement of 7,100 tons, S.H.P. of turbine engines 90,000, giving an estimated speed of 35 knots. The armament at first consisted of eight 6-in. guns arranged in double ? ! -!?, 1 FIG. 42.

storied batteries of four guns each, forward and aft, but recently this armament has been augmented by the addition of a twin 6-in. gun turret on the centre line forward and aft. The torpedo armament is to consist of two 21-in. above-water torpedo tubes. Protection, consisting of 3-in. total, is provided amidships to the machinery compartments. With the exception of some protection to the steering gear, the side protection does not appear to be so extensive as that provided for British light cruisers. Oil fuel only is burnt in the boilers of these vessels, the machinery arrangement of which is of considerable interest. The turbine engines drive four propellers, the engines for the outer shafts being accommodated in an engineroom situated between two groups of boiler-rooms, the engines for the inner shafts being in another engine-room abaft the second group of boilers. The turbines are geared, the reduction gears being of the Westinghouse floating-frame type. Cruising turbines are fitted to obtain economy at cruising speeds.

Japan.-Three light cruisers were completed for Japan in 1912. These vessels, of about 5,000 tons displacement, 26 knots and carrying eight 6-in. guns, are very similar to their British contemporaries of the " Newcastle " class. No other light cruisers were built by Japan until the " Tatsuta " and " Tenryu " were laid down in 1917 and completed in 1919. These vessels are in general characteristics similar to the British " Arethusa " class, with higher speed and reduced armament. On a displacement of 3,500 tons, a speed of 31 knots is obtained with 51,000 H.P. and four 5.5-in. guns are carried. Following these vessels were eight light cruisers of the " Tama " class, some of which have been launched. Twelve additional light cruisers of the 1920 programme will follow. It is understood that these 20 vessels are generally of the same class and are a considerable improvement upon the " Tatsuta." On a displacement of 5,500 tons, seven 5.5-in. guns will be carried and engines of 90,000 H.P. will be fitted to give a designed speed of 36 knots.

Germany.-The German naval programme provided for a small number of light cruisers to be built each year. The four vessels of the " Coln " class, completed in 1910 and 1911, were of 4,280 tons, 2 51 knots and carried 12 4. I-in. guns. They were an advance in size and speed on their predecessors. In 1912 and 1913 six vessels of slightly greater displacement and speed than the " Coln," but with the same armament, were completed. The next 14 vessels, completed 1914-5, were of 5,000 tons, 27 knots, 30,000 H.P., and had an improved armament of 2 5.9-in. and 10 4-I-in. guns. During the World War a number of light cruisers were built, the chief characteristics of which were their improved armaments, 6, 7, and 8 5.9-in. guns ss FIG. 43.

being carried. Some of the earlier cruisers were rearmed with 5.9-in. guns in lieu of 41-in. guns originally fitted. The " Brummer " and " Bremse," two of the surrendered vessels, were interesting ships. They were mine-laying cruisers of 4,000 tons, and, with turbine engines of 46,000 H.P., were generally credited with a speed of 34 knots, but this was at least 4 knots higher than the actual speed. They were arranged to carry about 300 mines. One of the chief differences between British and German light cruisers lay in the --r?

protection. British vessels, after the " Weymouth " class, were protected by side plating of 3-in. total thickness, the German vessels having less or no side protection, but with decks of I-in. or 2-in. thickness. A number of light cruisers were under construction at the Armistice. The " Coln " is typical of them. On a waterline length of 489 ft. and displacement of 5,600 tons,- she was to have carried 8 5.9-in. guns (five of which could be fired on the broadside), 3 31-in. H.A. guns and 4 revolving 23.6-in. torpedo tubes. Turbine engines of 29,000 S.H.P. were to have been provided for a speed of 271 knots. The protection consisted of about 21-in. side and ±-in. deck.

Four of the German light cruisers were incorporated, with new names, in the French navy, and three in the Italian navy. Austria.-In 1910 the light cruiser " Admiral Spaun " was completed and in 1914 three similar but slightly improved vessels. These were of 3,500 tons, 27 knots, and mounted 9 3.9-in. guns. Two of these vessels were taken into the Italian navy, and one into the French navy, all with new names.

Italy.-Six small light cruisers were completed between 1912 and 1916. The most interesting were the " Quarto " class (three vessels), of 3,400 tons and 28 knots, carrying 6 4.7-in. and 6 3-in. guns (see fig. 43).

Russia.-At the outbreak of the World War two small light cruisers, which were taken over by Germany, were under construction in German yards. One is now in the French navy, and the other was lost at Jutland. Eight light cruisers of a larger and more powerful type were under construction in Russia, but were not completed. They were designed to be 520 ft. long, of 7,600 tons displacement, armed with 15 5-in. guns, and, with turbines of 55,000 H.P. a speed of 30 knots was expected.

Holland.-Two light cruisers of 7,000 tons and 30 knots, with 10 5.91n. guns, were under construction for a long time, but had not yet been completed in 1921.

Spain.-A light cruiser of 5,600 tons, generally similar to the British " Birmingham," was being completed in 1921, and others of this class were projected.

France.-Six light cruisers of 5,000 tons, 30 knots speed and 8 5.51n. guns, were projected in the 1920 programme.

Torpedo-Boats and Submarines Specifications of the torpedo-boats and flotilla leaders and submarines of foreign navies are given in Tables IX. and X., and the reader is referred to the Transactions of the Institute of Naval Architects, 1920, for further information.

(3) Merchant Ships The ordinary course of mercantile shipbuilding development, which continued from 1910 until the autumn of 1914, was abruptly checked by the World War. As the result, merchant shipbuilding was practically stopped in France, Germany, Italy and Austria, and it was very much reduced in the United Kingdom owing to men joining the colours. At the same time a great fillip was given to shipbuilding in the United States and neutral countries. In England many of the best ships building were requisitioned and fitted out for war services, or for auxiliary services with the fleet. Large numbers of vessels were also withdrawn from the mercantile fleet for similar purposes, and this, together with the great losses due to submarines, very quickly created great demands for new ships. Shipbuilding resources were developed with great rapidity all over the world, leading up to: (1) a vastly increased output; (2) new types of vessels which could be constructed quickly; (3) development of new methods of construction. At the same time a vast increase took place in the plant of all kinds for the manufacture of armament, etc. The services rendered by the mercantile marine during the war were invaluable (see Shipping), while, broadly speaking, the ships themselves stood the brunt of war with very remarkable success. In some cases, however, large passenger ships were quickly sunk because of the existence of passages, or doors in bulkheads, which permitted the sea to find access to compartments other than those directly damaged, thus leading to the foundering of the vessels. This caused renewed attention to be given in all maritime countries to matters of life-saving and subdivision.

Many very notable vessels were lost. Some of the best known are shown in Table XI. Among these losses, the " Britannic " and " Justicia " (formerly " Statendam ") were the largest vessels building in the United Kingdom in 1914.

After the war the German ships which had been seized or interned were distributed among the Allies. Germany also had to surrender all ships above 1,600 tons afloat or on the stocks, many smaller ones, floating docks, cranes, and other craft, amounting to about 3,000,000 tons. These were divided chiefly between Britain and the United States, with smaller shares to France and Japan. She also had to undertake to build 1,000,000 tons for the Allies if required, but this was not enforced. Table 12 gives the names of some of the most noteworthy vessels thus distributed.

[[Table Ix]].- Torpedo-Boats and Flotilla Leaders. Table XII. includes a number of very fine vessels which Germany was building in 1914 to compete with the " Aquitania," " Olympic," and such types of British ships, in order to gain a still larger proportion of the Atlantic trade. Amongst them were the largest vessels afloat in 1921. In certain cases German companies were afterwards enabled to repurchase from the Allies some of the surrendered ships, which then reverted to German ownership. Austria had to surrender all her shipping, about it million tons. This was handed over to Italy, with the exception of about 70,000 tons for France.

Statistics.-The world's output had reached a maximum of 3,33 0, 000 tons in 1913, and was falling again in 1914. The tonnage launched in the United Kingdom reached the record total of approximately 2,000,000 tons in 1913, and in 1914 it had decreased by over io per cent. Great efforts had been made in France, Germany, Holland, Japan and Norway, and the totals in these countries showed distinctly upward tendencies. In the United States very great fluctuations occurred; the output on the coast had fallen to 95,000 tons, and on the Great Lakes to 75,000 tons in 1911, while in 1913 228,000 tons were launched on the coast and only 48,000 tons on the Lakes.

Table XIII. shows the tonnage of ships launched in various countries from 1910-20. The diagram Fig. 44 has been prepared on the basis of these figures. The striking results obtained in the British colonies and Japan will be noted, and the overwhelming influence of U.S. shipbuilding. Many of the American yards which were specially constructed for war purposes were in 1921 being closed, [[Table X]].- Submarines of Non-British Navies. [[Table X]]I.- Merchant-ships lost in the War. while others were falling back rapidly to pre-war conditions (see Shipping: United States). In the United Kingdom, from the middle of 1915, a committee of the Board of Trade, in conjunction with the Transport Department of the Admiralty, assumed control of the British mercantile marine, including shipbuilding. A Merchant Shipbuilding Advisory Committee was formed, with Sir George Carter as chairman. In Dec. 1916 the Ministry of Shipping was set up, under Sir Joseph Maclay. The Shipbuilding Advisory Committee was enlarged, and on its advice steps were taken to standardize the types of merchant ships to be built, and to simplify the details of construction both of hull and machinery to secure the greatest and quickest output possible.

Five types of " standard ships " were designed, varying from 3,000 to 8,000 tons deadweight, and between Dec. 1916 and April 1917 considerable numbers of these vessels were ordered. In order to harmonize the work of shipbuilding for the Admiralty and the mercantile marine, the whole was placed under one authority, Sir Eric Geddes, in June 1917, when he assumed office as controller of the Navy. Arrangements were made for setting up new shipyards with a view to producing " fabricated " ships, which could be put together with very much reduced amounts of skilled labour; but the results were disappointing, and at the end of 1918 the output in the United Kingdom was still only at the rate of 1,500,000 tons per annum. In March 1918 Lord Pirrie was appointed controller-general of [[Table Xii]].-Ownership of Some Notable ex-German Ships. [[Table Xii]]I.-Tonnage Launched in 1910-20 (in thousands of tons).

• Returns not complete.

merchant shipbuilding and given extraordinar y powers. The new shipyards were pushed on during 1918, but had scarcely come into active production when the Armistice was signed.

[[Table Xiv]].-Gross Tonnage of Shipping owned in 1910-21 (in millions of tons).

Largely as a result of the efforts of the United States, by the end of 1918 ships were being built at the rate of 7,000,000 tons per annum, against the pre-war record of 3,330,000 tons per annum. In June 1920 the steam tonnage of the world amounted to about 54,000,000 tons, notwithstanding the losses of the war. The total losses had amounted to about 9,000,000 tons of British ships and 6,000,000 tons others, making a total of 15,000,000 tons. Of the total, 2,000,000 tons were due to ordinary marine risks.

Motor-Ships.--The period 1910-2 saw immense changes in the means of propulsion. In 1911 the " Selandia " and " Jutlandia " were launched, and a number of other vessels were being built, in which internal-combustion engines of a more or less experimental character were being fitted. Lloyd's Register reports that by 1914 there were 290 motor-ships of 234,000 tons gross, while in 1921 there were no fewer than 1,447 ships of 1,263,000 tons gross, so that in 1921 there were nearly five times as many motor-ships in existence as there were in 1914, and the tonnage of these ships was nearly six times as great. In these seven years motor-vessels increased from 47 to 2.1 per cent of the world's tonnage.

Dr. Diesel's master patents expired in 1909 and 1910, and since then many successful types of internal-combustion engines have been established in Europe and in America (see Internal-Combustion Engines), and the proportion of motor to steam vessels building rapidly increased. In June 1921 183 motor-vessels of 502,944 tons were under construction, and out of this number 57 of 241,003 tons were being built in the United Kingdom.

Oil Burners.-Another very great improvement is in the use of oil instead of coal under steam boilers. Lloyd's Register reports that in 1914 364 vessels of 1,310,000 tons were fitted to burn oil, but in 1921 these had increased to 2,563 ships of 12,797,000 tons, or from 2.62 to 20.65% of the world's tonnage. In the United States four vessels burn oil to every three vessels burning coal. This use of oil fuel has demanded a large increase in the number of oil-tank steamers. In 1914 there were 385 tankers of 1,479,000 tons, while in 1921 there were 861 tankers of 4,419,000 tons, an increase from 2.94 to 7.16 per cent of the world's tonnage.

Electric Drive.-It has been the almost universal practice for submarines to be propelled by electric motors when submerged. In a few cases of small surface vessels electric drive had also been used prior to 1910. The earliest recorded appears to be Nobel's tank vessel " Sarmat," fitted with the system in 1904. About 1910 a small vessel named the " Electric Arc " was built on the Clyde to test the method of electric transmission devised by Ma y or, using Squirrel cage motors. The experiment was not altogether a success, but it gave a good deal of experience. Ma y or proceeded to America and discussed his ideas with Emmet, and no doubt assisted Emmet in the great undertaking carried out for the American navy in the collier " Jupiter " (now aircraft-carrier " Langley "). The American navy built three colliers at this time of identical dimensions, about 20,000 tons displacement, 7,500 H.P., 15 knots full speed, and cargo 12,000 tons. The " Cyclops " has two reciprocating engines, the " Neptune " has Parsons turbines and a West inghouse floating frame mechanical gearing, while the " Jupiter " was fitted with a Curtis turbo-electric generator, running at 2,000 revolutions, giving alternating current at 2,200 volts, and motors driving two propeller shafts at I Io revolutions. The reported engine room weight of the " Jupiter " is 223 tons, compared with 343 tons in " Cyclops " and 189 tons in " Neptune." Mayor's next step was to fit up an installation of 1,500 S.H.P. in the " Tynemount," built by Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Co. in 1913. This vessel was 250 ft. long, 1,644 tons gross, and of about 8 knots speed. This system, however, did not admit of development on a large scale.

The next important progress was made in Sweden, where two sister vessels were built, 225 ft. x 36 ft. x 15 ft., 2,250 displacement, 975 tons gross. Each was provided with 900 H.P. for ill knots. In the " Mimer " triple expansion reciprocating engines were fitted. In the " Mjolmer " Ljungstrom turbo-generators running at 800 r.p.m. were fitted, with two motors of 450 H.P. each, and geared to a single propeller shaft running at 85 r.p.m. It was reported that fuel consumption was reduced by over 40%, to 89 lb. per I.H.P. per hour, and that a saving of 74 tons in weight was effected. A large number of other vessels have since been fitted on the " Ljungstrom " system. These include the " Turbinia, " of 2,2J9 tons and 1,020 H.P., built in 1916 in Sweden, and the " Wulsty Castle," of 3,566 tons and 1,500 S.H.P., built in 1918 by Blurrier of Sunderland. It was reported that in 1921 there were 40 vessels building in different countries on this system with the aggregate of 70,000 horse power.

The success of the " Jupiter " was so great that electric transmission was adopted by the U.S. navy for a great many of their later ships, even of the highest power. The next great experiment in electrical propulsion was put in hand by the U.S. Shipping Board, who decided to remove the mechanical gearing in 12 vessels and fit an electric drive instead. The first vessel taken was named " Eclipse," the next three vessels " Archer," " Independence " and " Victorious." The " Eclipse " is 440 x 56 x 35.2., of 7,589 tons gross and 11,900 dead-weight. The boilers are fitted with Dahl oil burners, steam 215 lb. and 200° super heated. One turbine of the Curtis Impulse type is fitted to run at 2,000 r.p.m. A three-phased generator supplies current at 2,300 volts. An induction motor is fitted directly on the propeller shaft working at 2,300 volts and running at loo r.p.m. for 3,000 H.P. The speed may range from zo to la) of the normal. The result of the trials was very gratifying. The reports as to the first voyage were not quite so good. The other three vessels named had not yet gone on service in 1921.

Another very interesting case is that of the " Cuba," a vessel 310 x 40 x 26.9 of 2,963 tons gross. This vessel has also been fitted with a turbine electric drive by the General Electric Co., Schenectady, but in this case a synchronous motor is fitted. Steam of 190 lb. with 200° super heat is supplied to an 8-stage Curtis turbine, as in " Eclipse." This runs at 3,000 r.p.m. and 1,150 volts. The motor gives 3,000 H.P. at loo r.p.m. and 1,150 volts, and is fitted directly on the shaft. The trials of this vessel were well reported on. Both vessels are of 11 knots speed.

The question of the efficiency and economy of the electric drive was being very much discussed in 1921. On the one hand it was said that the transmission loss of the electrical system was 8% instead of 3% with the mechanical current, but the other ships with electrical current reported very good economy of fuel.

Wood Vessels.-In 1914 wood vessels amounted to 1% of the total steam tonnage, but owing to the special building during the war it had risen to nearly 4% in 1921. Of this large increase the United States owns one million tons.

The Emergency Fleet programme provided for ordering 1,067 wooden and composite ships, of 3,227,200 tons; but only 607 of 1,948,250 tons, were actually produced. In June 1921 288 cargo carriers remained in the possession of the U.S. Shipping Board, 15 being on active service and 273 tied up. The hoard also had 14 tugs, of which 9 were on active service. Up to this date 211 had been sold, 12 of which had been built for service as cargo carriers and 61 as tugs. One had been fitted for carrying oil in bulk. Seventy-four were incomplete when sold. In Aug. 1921 the remaining wooden vessels were reported to be sold to the Ship Construction and Trading Company.

Concrete Ships.-Prior to the war a number of small vessels for harbour or river service had been built of ferro-concrete in Italy, Norway and France. During the war a few experimental vessels of small size were built in various places, and the system was adopted to an increasing extent, practically all over the world. As larger vessels were built, the methods received careful consideration, and by proper development vessels up to 7,500 tons dead-weight were successfully produced. The complication of rods and ties in the larger vessels became very great, and sectional or panel systems were introduced, as contrasted with the usual monolith system. The reports as to results varied. The weight of hull was reported to be from 50 to l00% more than for steel, or about equal to wood; while the saving of steel for carrying a given dead-weight amounted to 55 to 66% of the steel ship. This was an enormous advantage during the steel shortage, and a further advantage was the power to build by a new class of labour, giving a greater aggregate of labour for shipbuilding. The most notable vessel was perhaps the S.S. " Faith," built by the San Francisco Shipping Co. in 1918.

This vessel, 320 ft. long, 3,427 tons gross, and fitted to burn oil fuel, was a great success. On arrival in England with a cargo the holds were found to be absolutely dry. Table XV. gives the total tonnage recorded of vessels of this type.

[[Table Xv]].-Ferro-Concrete Vessels Included in " Lloyd's Register," 1921-2. Large Liners.-Particulars of notable Atlantic liners of recent construction are given in Table XVI. When the " Lusitania " was sunk during the war, the " Mauretania " (30,704 tons) was the only pre-war 25-knot Atlantic liner left. She was followed, however by the "Aquitania " (45, 6 47 tons), of 24 knots, launched by John Brown & Co., for the Cunard Co., in 1914, and the " France," of 23,666 tons gross, launched at St. Nazaire for the Cie. Generale Transatlantique in 1912. The " France " had turbines of 45,000 H.P. on four shafts for her 24 knots, and carried 1,926 passengers besides her crew of six hundred. The " Aquitania " was completed during the war as a hospital ship, but saw very little service as such. After the war she was overhauled and fitted to burn oil fuel, so as to carry 3,250 passengers.

In 1917 another great French liner was launched, the " Paris," of 33,700 tons; it was not completed until June 1921. She could carry 98 passengers in cabins de luxe, 468 first-, 464 second-, I,10o third-class (in cabins), also 1,100 steerage in open berths-the total, including crew, amounting to 3,900 persons. She was fitted with four screws driven by Parsons' turbines, manufactured at Havre. During completion she was modified to burn oil fuel on the Wallsend-Howden system. On her first trip, with 12 boilers out of 15 in service, she averaged 21 knots.

Of the great White Star liners, the " Adriatic," of 24,541 tons gross, capable of carrying a total dead-weight of cargo and fuel of 19,710 tons, at a speed of 182 knots, may be taken as typical. A later ship, the " Belgic," of 24,547 tons gross, which was put prematurely into service during the war (1917), could carry 22,025 tons at the same speed. The " Adriatic," " Baltic," " Cedric " and " Celtic," averaging 22,600 tons gross, with a total dead-weight capacity of over 55,000 tons, became well known to Atlantic passengers as the " Big Four." The White Star policy of combining comfort for passengers with a large cargo-carrying capacity found its highest expression, however, in the " Olympic," of 46,359 tons, launched by Harland & Wolff in 1911. She could carry a total of 12,770 tons dead-weight on a draught of 34 ft. 7 in., with a displacement of 52,300 tons, and could take 2,400 passengers, besides her crew of 900, across the Atlantic at 21 knots. Having been altered to burn oil fuel, she could take sufficient at New York (7,500 tons) to provide for the double journey. Her maximum speed is 222 knots at 55,000 horse power. The " Olympic " was in 1921 the biggest British-built vessel, but her dimensions had been exceeded by the " Britannic," of 48,158 tons, which was launched by Harland & Wolff in 1914, and was sunk in Greek waters while serving as a hospital ship in 1916.

Still larger, however, were the three great liners built in Germany during 1912-4. The largest of these (and in 1921 the largest in the world), the " Majestic," (fig. 45) launched by Blohm & Voss in 1914, and acquired by the White Star for entering service in 1922, is of 56,000 tons gross. Turbines of about 100,000 H.P. on four shafts, the greatest installation yet fitted in any merchant vessel, give her an ocean speed-capacity of 23 knots. She is 956 ft. in length, 100 ft. in width, and 102 ft. in height from keel to boat deck. Parsons' turbines, arranged for triple expansion, are fitted on four shafts, and steam is supplied by Yarrow water-tube boilers at 260lb. pressure. The machinery weighs 8,500 tons, and 5,700 tons of fuel are consumed on one trip. The funnels come up at the side of the ship, joining together above, and thus leave the central part clear for dining-halls, etc. The ventilation involves 18 m. of piping, while there are 15,000 electric lamps, and 225 electric motors for various purposes, requiring a total of 1,565 horse-power. She can carry 4,000 passengers, while the food for one voyage includes 12 tons of fresh meat, 12 tons of vegetables, 14 tons of milk and about 5 tons of eggs.

Amongst the latest additions to the White Star line up to 1921 was the " Homeric," of 35,000 tons, carrying 2,700 passengers at 21 knots; she was launched at Danzig in 1913 as S.S. " Columbus." The " Homeric " is notable as being the last large ship propelled by reciprocating engines only, of which she has two sets, triple expan sion, cyls. 501 in., 862 in. (2), 96 in. and 70 in. stroke; but these were exceeded in size by those of " Britannic," (fig. 46) which were 54 in., 84 in. (2), 97 in. and 75 in. stroke, to give 32,000 I.H.P. on two wing shafts, and in addition " Brittannic " had l.p. turbines to give 18,000 S.H.P. on two central shafts. The engines of " Britannic " were probably the most powerful single sets made for an ocean liner, while the " Kronprinzessin Cecilie " (now " Mount Vernon ") had the greatest total I.H.P., as she had two sets of 4-cyl. engines on each shaft; they were 371 in., 49 in., 75 in., and 112 in. (quadruple expn.) and 71 in. stroke. Other new vessels being added by the White Star line are:-" Regina " (16,314 tons), and " Rimouski " (9,281 tons) for Canadian service; " Laurentic " (18,000 tons), " Doric " (16,600 tons) and " Pittsburgh " (16,600) for U.S. services.

The Cunard Co. acquired the " Berengaria " (formerly " Imperator ") of 52,022 tons, launched by Vulcan Works, Hamburg, in 1012. This vessel has Parsons' turbines of 60,000 H.P. on four shafts and can attain a speed of over 22 knots with 185 revolutions. She carries 4,000 passengers and a crew of 1,200.

The Cunard Co. decided immediately after the war to build a large number of intermediate vessels somewhat of the " Olympic " type, but smaller and of less speed. The first four were 600 ft. ships of about 21,000 tons gross and 27,000 tons displacement, at 30-ft. draught, and were named " Scythia," " Samaria," " Franconia," " Laconia." The " Samaria," (fig. 47) which may be taken as typical, was built by Cammell Laird & Co. in 1921. Her engines (turbines) are fitted with double helical speed reduction gear, to drive the propellers at an economical speed. The boilers are of the cylindrical type, fitted to burn oil fuel with forced draught on the Wallsend-Howden combined system. They will give steam at 220 lb. with 200° F., superheated by means of Schmidt's smoketube type of superheater. Her twin screws are operated by BrownCurtis turbines, which run at 2,750 revolutions. Triple expansion is arranged for as follows: On each side of the ship a H.P. and I.H.P. turbine are fitted in tandem on the shaft of the first driving pinion, and the l.p. turbine is fitted on the shaft of the second driving pinion of the first reduction gear, both then operate through the second reduction gear and give the propeller shafts a speed of 90 revs. per minute. The total S.H.P. of 13,500 gives a sea speed of 16 knots. The astern turbines are compound, and are incorporated in the exhaust casings of the intermediate and low-pressure ahead turbines, and give a total power equal to about 70% of the ahead power. This may be taken as typical of the best turbine arrangements of 1921. The " Samaria " can carry about 350 first-, 350 secondand 1,600 third-class passengers. Her deck machinery is driven by electric power through hydraulic variable-speed gear at each of the machines. Two large sets of turbo-driven generators are provided for this purpose, and an oil-driven emergency dynamo is also fitted. A gyro-compass installation is fitted, the master compass being on one of the lower decks, with three separate controlled compasses at suitable positions for navigation. Her subdivision is on the most approved principle, with increased numbers of watertight bulkheads, the water-tight bulkhead doors being operated on the Stone-Lloyd hydraulic system. She is further subdivided by fireproof bulkheads, and the " Grunwald " system of fire extinguishing is installed. Electric passenger hoists are provided.

Among great pre-war German liners which came into the service of U.S. shipping companies were the " America," of 172 knots and 22,622 tons, launched by Harland & Wolff, Belfast, in 1905, and the " George Washington," (fig. 48) of 18 knots and 25,570 tons, launched by the Vulcan Works, Stettin, in 1908. In addition, the " Leviathan," of 54,282 tons, and 21 knots, launched by Blohm & Voss, Hamburg, in 1914, was still in 1921 awaiting renovation and allocation to service. During the war these great vessels were utilized to transport immense numbers of American troops across the Atlantic. For this service they were specially prepared and ballasted, and, on sailing, the " Leviathan" had what may perhaps be a record draught for a vessel leaving port, viz. 40 ft. II in. " Leviathan " carried as many as 11,000 troops on a single trip.

Among American liners the place of the old " St. Paul " has been taken by ships of the " State " class, which were started as 522-ft. troopships (fig. 49). The first on the Atlantic service were the " Panhandle State," and the " Old North State," vessels of 10,500 tons, completed in 1920. There were five other vessels also of the same type, 522 ft. overall, with 502 ft. between perpendiculars. Supplemented by the great ex-German ships named above, they enabled the Shipping Board to send their faster (535 ft.) State type of vessel to the Pacific.

Germany in 1921 retained the old " Deutschland," which had now only machinery for 1s1 knots, and was named " Hansa." J ust prior to the war Germany was building a series of splendid vessels, most luxuriously fitted out, and supplied with every modern device for the attraction and comfort of passengers in order to capture the S. American trade. They were fitted with a combination of reciprocating engines and turbines. The best-known vessel, " Cap Trafalgar," 18,710 tons, 172 knots (1913), was, as an armed merchant cruiser, met and sunk after a stiff fight by the Cunarder " Carmania," also fitted out as an armed merchant cruiser. Other vessels of the type were the " Cap Finisterre," 14,503 tons, 17 knots, (1911) (now the " Taiyo Maru "), and the " Cap Polonio," 19,500 tons, 18 knots (1914). The last had specially luxurious apartments to fit her for the use of the ex-Kaiser, but after the war British owners could not run her at a profit, and she was sold back to Germany, and was, in 1921, far the best and fastest German steamer.

France replied with the " Lutetia," 14,654 tons (1913), and the " Massilia," 15,147 tons (1914), both having a combination of reciprocating engines and turbines for 20 knots.

The " Esperia," of 11,393 tons, the finest passenger vessel built as such in Italy, was launched at Genoa in 1921. She is fitted with Parsons' turbines, of 19,600 H.P., on two shafts, with mechanical reduction gearing, for 21 knots, and carrying 480 passengers in addition to a crew of three hundred. Italy also ordered two fine vessels in Great Britain. One, the " Conte Rosso," built by Beardmore, Dalmuir, was requisitioned by the Admiralty, razeed to give an uninterrupted flat deck, with no funnels, and fitted out as the aircraft-carrier " Argus." She was finished just before the Armistice. To take her place another vessel of the same name was launched in 1921 by Beardmore, 15,500 tons, 182 knots speed, dimensions 57 0 ft. x 74.2 ft. x 36.1 feet. The second vessel, " Giulio Cesare," laid down by Swan, Hunter & Co. at Wallsend, stood half plated during the war, and was finally completed in 1920, 21,500 tons, 182 knots sea speed. In her the fitting-out of the German " Cap " vessels was rivalled by a combination of British and Italian art, and this vessel was in 1921 the largest and finest Italian liner, and the finest vessel trading to S. American ports. She has four sets of turbines of 21,900 H.P. with single reduction gearing driving four propellers. giving a speed of 192 knots speed on trial, and carries 243 passengers in de luxe state-rooms, 306 second-class, Boo steerage and a crew of 520, giving a total of 1,869.

Spain had two fine vessels built just before the war, the " Infanta Isabel de Borbon," of 10,348 tons, 172 knots, launched by Denny at Dumbarton (1913), and the " Reina Victoria Eugene," 10,137 tons, launched by Swan, Hunter & Co. (1913), 172 knots, and of about the same general dimensions. Both are fine well-fitted vessels, and both have a combination of reciprocating engines and turbines of 10,000 H.P. for propulsion at 171 knots speed. Spain also built herself vessels of a steadily improving class. The " Alfonso XIII." (of 10,137 tons gross), built in 1921 at Bilbao, was the finest vessel yet constructed in Spain. Her dimensions are 480 ft. x 61 ft. x 41 feet. She is fitted with two sets of geared steam turbines of 10,300 S.H.P., giving 14 r.p.m. at the propellers, and a speed of about 172 knots.

Particulars of notable recent Pacific liners are given in Table 17. The wonderful development of what might be spoken of as secondary liners is illustrated by the new vessels built for the Canadian Pacific railway (now Canadian Pacific Ocean services). The " Empress of Canada," of 22,000 tons and 22 knots, built in 1920 by Fairfield will be the finest vessel on the Pacific Ocean.